Micronuclei (MN) are formed upon cell division in cells with DNA double-strand break(s) or dysfunctional mitotic spindle apparatus. Based on this detailed understanding of MN origin, the rodent-based micronucleus test has become the most widely utilized in vivo system for evaluating the clastogenic and aneugenic potential of chemicals (Heddle, “A Rapid In Vivo Test for Chromosome Damage,” Mutat. Res. 18:187-190 (1973); Schmid, “The Micronucleus Test,” Mutat. Res. 31:9-15 (1975); Hayashi et al., “In Vivo Rodent Erythrocyte Micronucleus Assay: Aspects of Protocol Design Including Repeated Treatments, Integration With Toxicity Testing, and Automated Scoring,” Environ. Mol. Mutagen. 35:234-252 (2000)). These rodent-based tests are most typically performed as erythrocyte-based assays. Since erythroblast precursors are a rapidly dividing cell population, and their nucleus is expelled a few hours after the last mitosis, MN-associated chromatin is particularly simple to detect in reticulocytes and normochromatic erythrocytes given appropriate staining (e.g., acridine orange) (Hayashi et al., “An Application of Acridine Orange Fluorescent Staining to the Micronucleus Test,” Mutat. Res. 120:241-247 (1983)).
Target cells for erythrocyte-based micronucleus assays were traditionally obtained from the bone marrow compartment. MacGregor et al. demonstrated that MN formed in the bone marrow of mice persist in peripheral blood (“Clastogen-induced Micronuclei in Peripheral Blood Erythrocytes: The Basis of an Improved Micronucleus Test,” Environ. Mutagen. 2:509-514 (1980)). Therefore, assay sensitivity is retained when studying genotoxicant-induced micronucleated erythrocytes in the peripheral blood of mice (Hayashi et al., “The Micronucleus Assay With Mouse Peripheral Blood Reticulocytes Using Acridine Orange-Coated Slides,” Mutat. Res. 245:245-249 (1990); “Micronucleus Test With Mouse Peripheral Blood Erythrocytes By Acridine Orange Supravital Staining: The Summary Report of the 5th Collaborative Study by The Collaborative Study Group for the Micronucleus Test,” Mutat. Res. 278:83-98 (1992)). To date, peripheral blood MN studies involving species other than the mouse have been qualified because it has been assumed that the high efficiency with which the spleen eliminates MN-containing erythrocytes from circulation would limit assay sensitivity (Schlegel and MacGregor, “The Persistence of Micronucleated Erythrocytes in the Peripheral Circulation of Normal and Splenectomized Fischer 344 Rats: Implications for Cytogenetic Screening,” Mutat. Res. 127:169-174 (1984)).
Despite a historical bias against the use of peripheral blood, studies with intact rats continue to suggest that circulating reticulocytes represent a suitable target population for studying genotoxicant-induced MN [Hayashi et al., “The Micronucleus Assay Using Peripheral Blood Reticulocytes from Mitomycin C- and Cyclophosphamide-treated Rats,” Mutat. Res. 278:209-213 (1992); Asanami et al., “The Suitability of Rat Peripheral Blood in Subchronic Studies for the Micronucleus Assay,” Mutat. Res. 347:73-78 (1995); Wakata et al., “Evaluation of the Rat Micronucleus Test with Bone Marrow and Peripheral Blood: Summary of the 9th Collaborative study by CSGMT/JEMS MMS,” Environ. Mol. Mutagen. 32:84-100 (1998); Abramsson-Zetterberg et al., “The Micronucleus Test in Rat Erythrocytes From Bone Marrow, Spleen and Peripheral Blood: The Response to Low Doses of Ionizing Radiation, Cyclophosphamide and Vincristine Determined by Flow Cytometry,” Mutat. Res. 423:113-124 (1999); Torous et al., “Enumeration of Micronucleated Reticulocytes in Rat Peripheral Blood: A Flow Cytometric Study,” Mutat. Res. 465:91-99 (2000); Hamada et al., “Evaluation of the Rodent Micronucleus Assay by a 28-day Treatment Protocol: Summary of the 13th Collaborative Study by the Collaborative Study Group for the Micronucleus Test (CSGMT)/Environmental Mutagen Society of Japan (JEMS)—Mammalian Mutagenicity Study Group (MMS),” Environ. Mol. Mutagen. 37:93-110 (2001); and Hynes et al., “The Single Laser Flow Cytometric Micronucleus Test: A Time Course Study Using Colchicines and Urethane in Rat and Mouse Peripheral Blood and Acetaldehyde in Rat Peripheral Blood,” Mutagenesis 17:15-23 (2002)). For species with efficient MN-sequestering function such as the rat, it has been suggested that the sensitivity of the endpoint is enhanced when MN analysis is restricted to the most immature fraction of reticulocytes, and also when the number of reticulocytes evaluated is increased (Schlegel and MacGregor, “The Persistence of Micronucleated Erythrocytes in the Peripheral Circulation of Normal and Splenectomized Fischer 344 Rats: Implications for Cytogenetic Screening,” Mutat. Res. 127:169-174 (1984); Hayashi et al., “The Micronucleus Assay Using Peripheral Blood Reticulocytes from Mitomycin C- and Cyclophosphamide-treated Rats,” Mutat. Res. 278:209-213 (1992); Abramsson-Zetterberg et al., “The Micronucleus Test in Rat Erythrocytes From Bone Marrow, Spleen and Peripheral Blood: The Response to Low Doses of Ionizing Radiation, Cyclophosphamide and Vincristine Determined by Flow Cytometry,” Mutat. Res. 423:113-124 (1999); Torous et al., “Enumeration of Micronucleated Reticulocytes in Rat Peripheral Blood: A Flow Cytometric Study,” Mutat. Res. 465:91-99 (2000); and Abramsson-Zetterberg et al., “Human Cytogenetic Biomonitoring Using Flow-cytometric Analysis of Micronuclei in Transferrin-positive Immature Peripheral Blood Reticulocytes,” Environ. Mol. Mutagen. 36:22-31 (2000)).
A flow cytometry-based method for simultaneously quantifying the incidence of young and mature erythrocytes, with and without micronuclei, in the peripheral blood compartment of humans has been described previously (Dertinger et al., “Enumeration of Micronucleated CD71-positive Human Reticulocytes with a Single-laser Flow Cytometer,” Mutat. Res. 515:3-14 (2002)). However, it would be desirable to develop a MN-assay that utilizes a nucleic acid dye with higher specificity for chromatin, is capable of higher rates of analysis, and is capable of preventing platelets and platelet-associated aggregates from interfering with accurate MN measurements.
The present invention is directed to overcoming these and other deficiencies in the art.